Is it size or production? His areas of focus are mechanization and small-scale farming. In particular those that essentially try to steal their land or water. Do you want to understand why Africa is a net importer of row crops - such as maize, wheat, rice, soyetc? Do you want to understand why Africa is a net importer of row crops - such as maize, wheat, rice, soyetc? Roelf L. Voortman Land resource ecologist Centre for World Food Studies (SOW-VU) Amsterdam, The Netherlandsr.l.voortman@vu.nl. Write an article and join a growing community of more than 165,300 academics and researchers from 4,637 institutions. According to BMZ representative Schattschneider, their current cooperation would be fully completed as planned, adding that AGRA may have set goals that were too ambitious ambitious to achieve when it first was founded. Tea production is a key industry in Kenya, where millions of people depend on it for a living. "In most cases, it's the interests of private companies, such as seed and fertilizer producers. change, small enclosed land, unsuitable land tenure systems, to the misconception that why did the green revolution fail in Africa's environment? We might not be very certain on how to implement a successful Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. I only regret that here in America we do not have the power to do this. It details a number of the likely reasons comparing what didnt happen in Africa with what did in other places. Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways: Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. Is There a Covid Wastewater Spike in New York City? Zambian agricultural expert Mutinta Nketani says that when an organization like AGRA "fails to achieve the goals it had set itself, all alarm bells should go off not only amid civil society, but also amid AGRA itself as well as its donors.". The African cultivated soils are of a different origin and have developed from crystalline bedrock. Now that we have identified these problems, Soils in the tropics are spatially as variable as in temperate zones. Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in. Read more:Can feeding insects to animals shake up farming as we know it? If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian. It has been shown that a large portion of farmers applying these technologies do not recover the cost. For staple crops as a whole, yields are up only 18% over 12 years for AGRAs 13 countries. Environmental impacts are negative, including acidification of soils under monoculture cultivation with fossil-fuel-based fertilizers. Originally published at the Institute for Agriculture & Trade Policy blog; cross posted from Triple Crisis. Something went wrong, please try again later. This is the technology package credited with raising agricultural productivity in what came to be known as the first Green Revolution in India and other parts of Asia and Latin America in the 1970s. agriculture are pretty well known. Thank you for your comment. Register, Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. Green Revolution incentives for priority crops such as maize drove land into maize and out of more nutritious and climate-resilient traditional crops such as millet and sorghum, eroding food security and nutrition for poor farmers. which we are in today, consists of adoption of practices such as improved Perhaps the terra preta plots were done on a much smaller scale? Also, as BlakeFelix said, they were one exception, in an area that is relatively small when considering the whole of global agriculture. +1 although I would say that the point about soil and water degradation makes it even worse than eating your seed corn. You can revoke your consent to the use of cookies at any time. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways: Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. Western sponsored Industrial farming parachuted in economic hit men who dispossessed local small scale farmers of their land under the guise of modernizing farming and increasing crop yield. AGRA President Agnes Kalibata said in a DW interview in 2017 that "farmers need access to technology, quality seeds and fertilizer.. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. Your Comment Added Successfully. What does a sustainable cacao farming system look like? PHPSESSID is a standard session cookie for PHP applications. More recent UN figures show that the number of severely hungry people in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole has grown 50% since the alliances founding in 2006. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com. Crop yield improvement is dearly needed in sub-Saharan Africa, but remarkably, African farmers do not adopt the available Green Revolution fertiliser technologies. Having also purchased seeds and fertilizer at high market prices, the government started to distribute them to small farmers. Why? In 2017, she co-authored a declaration at an international nutrition conference hosted by Germany on the occasion of its G20 presidency later in the same year, AGRA and the federal German government agreed on embarking on a cooperation that has proven to be valuable for both parties: In 2019, the annual meeting of the AGRA board of directors took place in Berlin. addressed urgently through concerted efforts by the governments, development change, small enclosed land, unsuitable land tenure systems, to the misconception that Read more:Why feeding cows better grass can help fight climate change. For the past 50+ years Wendell Berry (farmer, poet, novelist, social critic, historian, short story writer par excellence) has shown that industrialized agriculture is a futile category error and will remain so. So many chemical based farming techniques are the equivalent of eating your seed corn. For most of the best countries performing well in agriculture government has significantly featured in their finance. it reminds me a little of how private equity pretends their successes over the past few years can be extrapolated over the long term, when as we all know, they cant. That is nowhere near its goal of doubling productivity, a 100% increase. I offer two responses. Its recently published 2020 Annual Report claims to do so, but my view is it presents only short-term changes for small samples of crops and countries. Its all cheerleading and the language is almost childish in its insistence that you accept the basic goodness of this crap. I wont go into your own country Germany and its record in the country next door to me, Namibia. AGRA has made over $500 million in grants to promote its vision of a modernized African agriculture freed from its limited technology and low yields. Kalibata's star continues to rise with each major global cooperation projects being signed off; currently, she is preparing a World Food Summit next year as Special Envoy of UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres. Senior Research Fellow, Global Development and Environment, Tufts University. In the end, AGRA's head of strategy, Andrew Cox, sent a written reply, saying: "We reject the criticism arising of this 'analysis', which was not conducted in a transparent manner. Dr. Agnes Kalibata, AGRA's President, has built up a strong international network and knows how to go about getting people to listen to her. According to the current evaluation, the Zambian government is currently sitting on outstanding invoices to the tune of $106 million (89 million euros). There are also problems like this: Maize Lethal Necrosis in Kenya. By any estimate, 30 million smallholder farming households represent a significant majority of farmers in the 13 focus countries. That summit should instead actively consider agroecology and other low-cost, low-input approaches, which have shown far better short and long-term prospects than high-input Green Revolution practices. Most alarming, UN estimates of the number of severely undernourished people in those 13 countries increased 31% since 2006, a far cry from cutting food insecurity in half. Furthermore, fertilisers are expensive in Africa, which implies that to ensure profitability of its use, the applied fertiliser must have very large yield impacts, much larger than in Europe. View your signed in personal account and access account management features. small, governments offer zero subsidies to agricultural mechanization, some Neither has the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which has provided two-thirds of AGRAs funding. No signs of sustainable intensification, the goal of sustainably increasing production on existing farmland. Especially goats to my understanding, goats are good at surviving, but their ability to eat anything leaves nothing. Even worse, malnutrition has increased. It tills an area of soil with the aim of killing basically all of the diverse plants that are growing there and replacing it with one species, the desired mono crop. Nketani is one of the authors of a current review published by several German and African development organizations together with the left-leaning Rosa Luxemburg Foundation. following questions: I am not sure of your answer, but I guess that there is no way OneUniversity of Essex studysurveyed nearly 300 large ecological agriculture projects across more than 50 poor countries and documented an average 79% increase in productivity with decreasing costs and rising incomes. Joseph is a passionate Agribusiness professional who is on a mission to improve food security in Africa. agricultural machines are expensive, farmers are very poor, farms are too The above is a 2014 NYT article that discusses the problems up that time with the various initiatives in Africa on this subject with includes AGRA. Obviously, this holds a fortiori under wetter conditions such as in the savanna and highland zones. Yeah, I think that you are right, but that was a fairly isolated and unusual practice. But if we bring our minds together, impossible is nothing. Elsewhere, soils mostly lack these properties. But the fact that smallholder farmers in Africa were leaving their farms was no reason . In my view, high levels of wheat production are only possible But it seems you cant keep a bad idea down. Africa lacked infrastructure such as roads, or Indias railway system, that helped farmers to commercialize their grain. African governments, for the most part, did not do these things. In many regions across Africa, land remains under the control of men thanks to stubborn cultural barriers. Mutinta Nketani might meanwhile be rather disappointed to hear that; she wants to witness a radical sea change on how investors deal with African agriculture: "They must support agricultural projects based on local techniques and experience, she said in an interview, adding that every without AGRA's help, African farmers already know how to produce seeds and organic fertilizers while protecting the environment. See below. The Green Revolution, also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period of technology transfer initiatives that saw greatly increased crop yields and agricultural production. Read more:Africa's organic farmers struggle to get certified. The Green Revolution that brought advances in crop genetics to Asia and Latin America completely bypassed the African continent. The hitherto literally trial and error approach has to be curbed to an approach whereby yield response to added nutrients is related to the nutrient content in the soil. Here in rural Germany most all of the agriculture is growing corn to make into ethanol at great expense with less energy produced than required to grow it. What defines a small scale farmer? To purchase short-term access, please sign in to your personal account above. Ironically, intensive agriculture Is now being abandoned in parts of Europe, in favour of traditional techniques that resemble those displaced by this initiative. Depending on where you are, small scale farming is anything from 50 Ha and below. Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. Moreover, naturally, the best soils have often been selected for putting into use. Unless you are farming 1/2 an acre, manual labor on more than one acre cannot be efficient, and hence production can never be optimum. But profitable nonsense. On February 28, 2022, the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) released an evaluation of its recently concluded five-year strategy. Thus, African soils are locally homogeneous and spatially variable and, hence, at short distances, entirely different fine-tuned and site-specific fertiliser compositions and doses may be required to achieve the agro-climatic yield potentials. It would have been far better to go into a place like Africa, analyze the methods that they were using and then refine and develop them instead of imposing western ideas about what works and what does not. Our research paper calls into question the very premises of the Green Revolutions theory of change. In that case, agricultural revolutions should NOT be viewed in the lenses of stages but on capacity of a farmer. Hence, the future agriculture of Africa will have to achieve most of its production increases under rainfed conditions. Yes, we should definitely trust Bill Gates with the subject of food security in Africa because if there was anything that Bill Gates was good at it was security at Microsoft. What first made me suspicious about modern farming was a conversation that I had with a guy who did an agricultural course in Brisbane about thirty years ago. Agroecology can offer several contributions to this process.. Subsistence farmers at least have their own output to survive on and typically grow a number of crops, giving some variety. How to tell the truth all the time without struggling. So we examined data from its 13 priority countries among them Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania to see if there were indications that a productivity revolution was taking place, generating rising incomes and improved food security. Enter your library card number to sign in. And nothing else. The anti-colonial hero who was not. Agric mechanization courses should be introduced in technical colleges especially at cert and dip levels. As the report makes clear, as AGRA reaches its 2020 deadline, it is time for African governments and the donor community to change course. Skip to main content About Contact Newsletter subscription RSS English The SSA food system is further threatened by rapid population growth, wide-spread soil erosion and agricultural practices of nutrient mining, leading to increasingly impoverished soils. It continued to . The Impact of Ethiopian Productive Safety Net Program on Children's Educational Aspirations and Attainments, Heterogeneous Effects of Women's Schooling on Fertility, Literacy and Work: Evidence from Burundi's Free Primary Education Policy, A Crossed Analysis of Participations in Labor and Grain Markets: Evidence from Malawi, From Food Subsidies to Cash Transfers: Assessing Economy-Wide Benefits and Trade-Offs in Egypt, Feed Thy Neighbour: How Social Ties Shape Spillover Effects of Cash Transfers on Food Security and Nutrition, Browse content in A - General Economics and Teaching, A13 - Relation of Economics to Social Values, B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches, Browse content in B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches, Browse content in B4 - Economic Methodology, Browse content in B5 - Current Heterodox Approaches, C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods, Browse content in C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods, C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General, Browse content in C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General, C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General, C15 - Statistical Simulation Methods: General, C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables, Browse content in C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables, C21 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions, C22 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes, C23 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models, C24 - Truncated and Censored Models; Switching Regression Models; Threshold Regression Models, C25 - Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete Regressors; Proportions; Probabilities, C26 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation, C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables, Browse content in C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables, C31 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models, C32 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models, C33 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models, C34 - Truncated and Censored Models; Switching Regression Models, C35 - Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete Regressors; Proportions, C36 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation, C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics, Browse content in C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics, C41 - Duration Analysis; Optimal Timing Strategies, Browse content in C5 - Econometric Modeling, C53 - Forecasting and Prediction Methods; Simulation Methods, C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling, Browse content in C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling, C68 - Computable General Equilibrium Models, C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs, Browse content in C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs, C81 - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data; Data Access, C82 - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Macroeconomic Data; Data Access, Browse content in C9 - Design of Experiments, D01 - Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles, D02 - Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact, D03 - Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles, D04 - Microeconomic Policy: Formulation; Implementation, and Evaluation, D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics, Browse content in D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics, D12 - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis, D13 - Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation, Browse content in D2 - Production and Organizations, D23 - Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights, D24 - Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor Productivity; Capacity, D25 - Intertemporal Firm Choice: Investment, Capacity, and Financing, D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions, D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design, D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium, Browse content in D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium, D58 - Computable and Other Applied General Equilibrium Models, D63 - Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and Measurement, D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making, Browse content in D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making, D71 - Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations, D72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior, D73 - Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations; Corruption, D74 - Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions, D78 - Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation, D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty, Browse content in D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty, D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty, D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design, D83 - Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication; Belief; Unawareness, Browse content in D9 - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics, D91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making, E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics, Browse content in E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics, E01 - Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth; Environmental Accounts, E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy, Browse content in E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy, E22 - Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity, E27 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications, E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles, Browse content in E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles, Browse content in E4 - Money and Interest Rates, E42 - Monetary Systems; Standards; Regimes; Government and the Monetary System; Payment Systems, E44 - Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy, E47 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications, E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit, Browse content in E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit, E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook, Browse content in E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook, E61 - Policy Objectives; Policy Designs and Consistency; Policy Coordination, E63 - Comparative or Joint Analysis of Fiscal and Monetary Policy; Stabilization; Treasury Policy, Browse content in F - International Economics, F12 - Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies; Fragmentation, F13 - Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations, F16 - Trade and Labor Market Interactions, F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business, Browse content in F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business, F21 - International Investment; Long-Term Capital Movements, F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business, Browse content in F3 - International Finance, F32 - Current Account Adjustment; Short-Term Capital Movements, F33 - International Monetary Arrangements and Institutions, F34 - International Lending and Debt Problems, F36 - Financial Aspects of Economic Integration, F37 - International Finance Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications, F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance, Browse content in F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance, F42 - International Policy Coordination and Transmission, F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy, Browse content in F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy, F53 - International Agreements and Observance; International Organizations, F54 - Colonialism; Imperialism; Postcolonialism, F55 - International Institutional Arrangements, Browse content in F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization, Browse content in G - Financial Economics, Browse content in G1 - General Financial Markets, G11 - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions, G14 - Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading, G17 - Financial Forecasting and Simulation, Browse content in G2 - Financial Institutions and Services, G21 - Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages, G22 - Insurance; Insurance Companies; Actuarial Studies, G23 - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional Investors, G24 - Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage; Ratings and Ratings Agencies, Browse content in G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance, G31 - Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies; Capacity, Browse content in H1 - Structure and Scope of Government, H11 - Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government, Browse content in H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue, H24 - Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies; includes inheritance and gift taxes, H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents, Browse content in H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents, Browse content in H4 - Publicly Provided Goods, H43 - Project Evaluation; Social Discount Rate, H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies, Browse content in H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies, H52 - Government Expenditures and Education, H54 - Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock, Browse content in H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt, H63 - Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt, H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations, Browse content in H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations, H71 - State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue, H77 - Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession, Browse content in I - Health, Education, and Welfare, I13 - Health Insurance, Public and Private, I18 - Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health, Browse content in I2 - Education and Research Institutions, I23 - Higher Education; Research Institutions, Browse content in I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty, I32 - Measurement and Analysis of Poverty, I38 - Government Policy; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs, Browse content in J - Labor and Demographic Economics, Browse content in J1 - Demographic Economics, J11 - Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts, J12 - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse, J13 - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth, J15 - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination, J16 - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination, Browse content in J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor, J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure, J24 - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity, J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs, Browse content in J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs, J31 - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials, Browse content in J4 - Particular Labor Markets, J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining, Browse content in J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining, J51 - Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects, J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers, Browse content in J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers, J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers, J62 - Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility, J64 - Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search, Browse content in J7 - Labor Discrimination, J8 - Labor Standards: National and International, Browse content in J8 - Labor Standards: National and International, K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior, Browse content in K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior, K42 - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law, Browse content in L - Industrial Organization, L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance, Browse content in L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance, L11 - Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of Firms, L13 - Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets, L14 - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks, L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior, Browse content in L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior, L22 - Firm Organization and Market Structure, L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise, Browse content in L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise, L31 - Nonprofit Institutions; NGOs; Social Entrepreneurship, L33 - Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out, Browse content in L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing, L67 - Other Consumer Nondurables: Clothing, Textiles, Shoes, and Leather Goods; Household Goods; Sports Equipment, Browse content in L8 - Industry Studies: Services, L83 - Sports; Gambling; Recreation; Tourism, M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics, Browse content in M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics, Browse content in M5 - Personnel Economics, N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations, Browse content in N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations, N10 - General, International, or Comparative, Browse content in N2 - Financial Markets and Institutions, N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy, Browse content in N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy, N30 - General, International, or Comparative, N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation, Browse content in N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation, N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries, Browse content in N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries, Browse content in N6 - Manufacturing and Construction, N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services, Browse content in N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services, O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth, Browse content in O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth, Browse content in O1 - Economic Development, O11 - Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development, O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development, O13 - Agriculture; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Other Primary Products, O14 - Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice of Technology, O15 - Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration, O16 - Financial Markets; Saving and Capital Investment; Corporate Finance and Governance, O17 - Formal and Informal Sectors; Shadow Economy; Institutional Arrangements, O18 - Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing; Infrastructure, O19 - International Linkages to Development; Role of International Organizations, Browse content in O2 - Development Planning and Policy, O23 - Fiscal and Monetary Policy in Development, O24 - Trade Policy; Factor Movement Policy; Foreign Exchange Policy, O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights, Browse content in O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights, O31 - Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives, O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity, Browse content in O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity, O41 - One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models, O47 - Empirical Studies of Economic Growth; Aggregate Productivity; Cross-Country Output Convergence, Browse content in O5 - Economywide Country Studies, Browse content in P1 - Capitalist Systems, P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies, Browse content in P4 - Other Economic Systems, P48 - Political Economy; Legal Institutions; Property Rights; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Regional Studies, Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics, Browse content in Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics, Q11 - Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis; Prices, Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets, Q13 - Agricultural Markets and Marketing; Cooperatives; Agribusiness, Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure; Land Reform; Land Use; Irrigation; Agriculture and Environment, Q16 - R&D; Agricultural Technology; Biofuels; Agricultural Extension Services, Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation, Browse content in Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation, Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation, Browse content in Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation, Q32 - Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development, Q34 - Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts, Browse content in Q5 - Environmental Economics, Q54 - Climate; Natural Disasters; Global Warming, Q56 - Environment and Development; Environment and Trade; Sustainability; Environmental Accounts and Accounting; Environmental Equity; Population Growth, R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics, Browse content in R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics, Browse content in R1 - General Regional Economics, R11 - Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes, R12 - Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity, R13 - General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional Economies, Browse content in R2 - Household Analysis, R23 - Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population; Neighborhood Characteristics, R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location, Browse content in R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location, R32 - Other Spatial Production and Pricing Analysis, Browse content in R4 - Transportation Economics, R41 - Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion; Travel Time; Safety and Accidents; Transportation Noise, Browse content in R5 - Regional Government Analysis, R53 - Public Facility Location Analysis; Public Investment and Capital Stock, R58 - Regional Development Planning and Policy, Browse content in Z - Other Special Topics, Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology, Browse content in Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology, Z13 - Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology; Social and Economic Stratification, About the Centre for the Study of African Economies, B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox.
Hinomoto Tractor Manual, Top Fleet Management Software, Ridgid Powerclear Drain Cleaner Manual, Is Anker A Good Brand For Chargers, Craftsman Foam Cannon, Velocloud Partner Portal, Temani Brown Wicker Chair For Sale Near Haguenau, Mackenzie-childs Sterling Check Paper Towel Holder, Salesforce Big Objects Considerations, Ladies Longline Hoodies, Furhaven Orthopedic, Cooling Gel, Long Sleeve Base Layer With Thumb Holes, Rhone Slim Fit Commuter Shirt,